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11
Abaza
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia, Turkey
Native speakers
47,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
9
Abenaki
Native to
United States, Canada
Most spoken in
United States, Canada
Native speakers
20
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Acehnese
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
3,363,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Achuar-Shiwiar
Native to
Ecuador, Peru
Most spoken in
Ecuador, Peru
Native speakers
4,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Achumawi
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
10
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Adai
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
11
Adyghe
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
128,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Afrikaans
Native to
South Africa, Namibia
Most spoken in
South Africa, Namibia, Botswana
Native speakers
7,200,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Aguaruna
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
58,900
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Akan
Native to
Ghana
Most spoken in
Ghana
Native speakers
9,100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
9
Akhvakh
Native to
North Caucasus, Azerbaijan
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
6,800
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Albanian
Native to
Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia
Most spoken in
Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia
Native speakers
6,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Aleut
Native to
United States, Russia
Most spoken in
United States, Russia
Native speakers
150
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
8
Alibamu
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
100
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
5
Amarakaeri
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Amharic
Native to
Ethiopia
Most spoken in
Ethiopia
Native speakers
21,811,600
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Andic
Native to
North Caucasus
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
5,800
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Arabic
Native to
Arab League countries
Most spoken in
Arab League countries
Native speakers
310,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
12
Armenian
Native to
Armenia
Most spoken in
Armenia, Russia, Georgia
Native speakers
6,700,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Aromanian
Native to
Romania, North Macedonia, Greece
Most spoken in
Romania, North Macedonia, Greece
Native speakers
300,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Ashaninka
Native to
Peru, Brazil
Most spoken in
Peru, Brazil
Native speakers
44,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Assamese
Native to
India, Bangladesh
Most spoken in
India, Bangladesh
Native speakers
16,597,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Asturian
Native to
Spain
Most spoken in
Spain
Native speakers
80,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Atayal
Native to
Taiwan
Most spoken in
Taiwan
Native speakers
85,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Aukan
Native to
Suriname
Most spoken in
Suriname
Native speakers
15,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Awakatek
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
10,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Aymara
Native to
Bolivia, Peru, Chile
Most spoken in
Bolivia, Peru, Chile
Native speakers
2,400,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Ayoreo
Native to
Paraguay, Bolivia
Most spoken in
Paraguay, Bolivia
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Azerbaijani
Native to
Azerbaijan
Most spoken in
Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey
Native speakers
32,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
2
Baliem Valley
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
New Guinea
Native speakers
90,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
12
Balinese
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
3,400,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Balti
Native to
Pakistan
Most spoken in
Pakistan
Native speakers
400,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Bari
Native to
South Sudan
Most spoken in
South Sudan
Native speakers
800,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
9
Bashkir
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Basque
Native to
Spain, France
Most spoken in
Spain, France
Native speakers
670,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
2
Bassa
Native to
Liberia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone
Most spoken in
Liberia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone
Native speakers
600,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Batak Karo
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
570,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Belarusian
Native to
Belarus, Poland, Ukraine
Most spoken in
Belarus, Poland, Ukraine
Native speakers
4,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Bemba
Native to
Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo
Most spoken in
Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo
Native speakers
3,300,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Bengali
Native to
Bangladesh, India
Most spoken in
Bangladesh, India
Native speakers
228,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
9
Bezhta
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
12,100
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Breton
Native to
France
Most spoken in
France
Native speakers
206,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Budukh
Native to
Russia, Azerbaijan
Most spoken in
Russia, Azerbaijan
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
5
Bugis
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
5,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
12
Bulgarian
Native to
Bulgaria
Most spoken in
Bulgaria
Native speakers
8,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Burmese
Native to
Myanmar
Most spoken in
Myanmar
Native speakers
33,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
5
Burusho
Native to
Pakistan
Most spoken in
Pakistan
Native speakers
98,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Cakchiquel
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
475,889
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Caló
Native to
Spain, United States
Most spoken in
Spain, United States
Native speakers
40,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Catalan
Native to
Spain, Andorra
Most spoken in
Spain, Andorra
Native speakers
4,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Catawba
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Cavineña
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia
Native speakers
800
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Cayuvava
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
700
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Chamorro
Native to
Guam, Northern Mariana Islands
Most spoken in
Guam, Northern Mariana Islands
Native speakers
58,500
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Chechen
Native to
Russia, Georgia
Most spoken in
Russia, Georgia
Native speakers
1,370,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Cherokee
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
12
Chinese
Native to
China
Most spoken in
China
Native speakers
1,311,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Chinook
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Chipaya
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Chiriguano
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia, Paraguay
Native speakers
64,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
Choctaw
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
9,300
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
7
Chontal
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
35,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Chuj
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala, Mexico
Native speakers
491,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Chuvash
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,740,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
6
Chácobo
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia
Native speakers
350
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Cofan
Native to
Ecuador
Most spoken in
Ecuador, Colombia
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Colorado
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Cora Nayar
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
24,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
13
Cornish
Native to
United Kingdom
Most spoken in
United Kingdom
Native speakers
600
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Corsican
Native to
France, Italy
Most spoken in
France, Italy
Native speakers
100,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
Creek
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
3,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Croatian
Native to
Croatia
Most spoken in
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Native speakers
5,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
12
Crow
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
5,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Czech
Native to
Czech Republic
Most spoken in
Czech Republic
Native speakers
11,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Danish
Native to
Denmark
Most spoken in
Denmark, Greenland, Faroe Islands
Native speakers
5,700,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Deg Xinag
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
40
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Dutch
Native to
Netherlands
Most spoken in
Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname
Native speakers
24,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Emberá
Native to
Panama, Colombia
Most spoken in
Panama, Colombia
Native speakers
80,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
English
Native to
United Kingdom, United States
Most spoken in
Worldwide
Native speakers
1,132,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Eperara
Native to
Colombia, Ecuador
Most spoken in
Colombia, Ecuador
Native speakers
2,300
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Erza Mordvin
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Estonian
Native to
Estonia
Most spoken in
Estonia
Native speakers
1,100,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Even
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
5,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Evenki
Native to
Russia, China
Most spoken in
Russia, China
Native speakers
35,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
9
Faroese
Native to
Faroe Islands
Most spoken in
Faroe Islands
Native speakers
50,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Filipino
Native to
Philippines
Most spoken in
Philippines
Native speakers
45,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Finnish
Native to
Finland
Most spoken in
Finland
Native speakers
5,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
French
Native to
France
Most spoken in
Worldwide
Native speakers
300,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Frisian
Native to
Netherlands, Germany
Most spoken in
Netherlands, Germany
Native speakers
440,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Galician
Native to
Spain
Most spoken in
Spain
Native speakers
2,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
12
Georgian
Native to
Georgia
Most spoken in
Georgia
Native speakers
3,900,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
German
Native to
Germany
Most spoken in
Germany, Austria, Switzerland
Native speakers
95,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Ghulfan
Native to
Oman
Most spoken in
Oman
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Gilaki
Native to
Iran
Most spoken in
Iran
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Goajiro
Native to
Colombia, Venezuela
Most spoken in
Colombia, Venezuela
Native speakers
200,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
12
Greek
Native to
Greece, Cyprus
Most spoken in
Greece, Cyprus
Native speakers
13,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Groningen
Native to
Netherlands
Most spoken in
Netherlands
Native speakers
185,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Guaraní
Native to
Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil
Most spoken in
Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil
Native speakers
8,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
12
Gujarati
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
55,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Gupapuyngu
Native to
Australia
Most spoken in
Australia
Native speakers
700
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Hausa
Native to
Niger, Nigeria
Most spoken in
Niger, Nigeria
Native speakers
63,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Hawaiian
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
12
Hebrew
Native to
Israel
Most spoken in
Israel
Native speakers
7,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Hindi
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
584,570,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Hmong
Native to
China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand
Most spoken in
China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand
Native speakers
5,000,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
6
Ho
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
1,040,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Huastec
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
155,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
12
Hungarian
Native to
Hungary
Most spoken in
Hungary, Romania, Slovakia
Native speakers
13,100,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Icelandic
Native to
Iceland
Most spoken in
Iceland
Native speakers
314,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Igbo
Native to
Nigeria
Most spoken in
Nigeria
Native speakers
24,400,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Indonesian
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
215,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
9
Ingrian
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Ingush
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
410,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
12
Irish Gaelic
Native to
Ireland
Most spoken in
Ireland
Native speakers
74,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
12
Italian
Native to
Italy, Switzerland, San Marino
Most spoken in
Italy, Switzerland, San Marino
Native speakers
85,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Itonama
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Itza’
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
100
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Ixil
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
82,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
12
Japanese
Native to
Japan
Most spoken in
Japan
Native speakers
127,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Javanese
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
98,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Jèrriais
Native to
Jersey
Most spoken in
Jersey
Native speakers
3,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Kadazandusun
Native to
Malaysia
Most spoken in
Malaysia
Native speakers
1,200,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Kadugli
Native to
Sudan
Most spoken in
Sudan
Native speakers
75000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Kaingang
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
15,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
10
Kam
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,600
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Kannada
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
45,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Kapucha
Native to
Nigeria
Most spoken in
Nigeria
Native speakers
6,200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
4
Karajá
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
670
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Karakalpak
Native to
Uzbekistan
Most spoken in
Uzbekistan
Native speakers
511,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Karelian
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia, Finland
Native speakers
100,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Karipuna
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
39
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
13
Kashubian
Native to
Poland
Most spoken in
Poland
Native speakers
110,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Kekchi
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
700,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
6
Kharia
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
272,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Khinalug
Native to
Azerbaijan
Most spoken in
Azerbaijan
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Khmer
Native to
Cambodia
Most spoken in
Cambodia
Native speakers
16,300,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Kiribati
Native to
Kiribati
Most spoken in
Kiribati
Native speakers
123,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Komi
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
322,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Konkani
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
7,600,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
Korean
Native to
South Korea, North Korea
Most spoken in
Korea
Native speakers
78,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Koromfe
Native to
Burkina Faso
Most spoken in
Burkina Faso
Native speakers
10,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Kpelle
Native to
Liberia
Most spoken in
Liberia
Native speakers
1,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Kumyk
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
550,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Kunza
Native to
Chile
Most spoken in
Chile
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
11
Kurdish
Native to
Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria
Most spoken in
Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria
Native speakers
30,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Kuwi
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
K’iche’ Maya
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
1,900,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Ladino
Native to
Israel, Turkey
Most spoken in
Israel, Turkey
Native speakers
150,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
14
Lakota
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Lao
Native to
Laos
Most spoken in
Laos
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
Latvian
Native to
Latvia
Most spoken in
Latvia
Native speakers
1,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Limbu
Native to
Nepal
Most spoken in
Nepal
Native speakers
40,840
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
11
Lithuanian
Native to
Lithuania
Most spoken in
Lithuania
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Livonian
Native to
Latvia
Most spoken in
Latvia, Estonia
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
11
Livvi-Karelian
Native to
Russia, Finland
Most spoken in
Russia, Finland
Native speakers
8,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Lombard
Native to
Italy
Most spoken in
Italy
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Luaniua
Native to
Solomon Islands
Most spoken in
Solomon Islands
Native speakers
2,500
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Luba
Native to
Democratic Republic of Congo
Most spoken in
Democratic Republic of Congo
Native speakers
6,600,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Ludic
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Luxembourgish
Native to
Luxembourg
Most spoken in
Luxembourg
Native speakers
390,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Macedonian
Native to
North Macedonia
Most spoken in
North Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece
Native speakers
2,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
5
Machiguenga
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
6,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Macushi
Native to
Guyana, Brazil
Most spoken in
Guyana, Brazil
Native speakers
30,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Maia
Native to
Papua New Guinea
Most spoken in
Papua New Guinea
Native speakers
3,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Makishi
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
60
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
8
Malagasy
Native to
Madagascar
Most spoken in
Madagascar
Native speakers
20,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Malay
Native to
Malaysia, Indonesia
Most spoken in
Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Singapore
Native speakers
290,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Malayalam
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
38,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
5
Maldivian
Native to
Maldives
Most spoken in
Maldives
Native speakers
310,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Maltese
Native to
Malta
Most spoken in
Malta
Native speakers
520,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Malto
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
80,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mam
Native to
Guatemala
Most spoken in
Guatemala
Native speakers
470,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Mamanwa
Native to
Philippines
Most spoken in
Philippines
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Manado
Native to
Indonesia
Most spoken in
Indonesia
Native speakers
850,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Manchu
Native to
China
Most spoken in
China
Native speakers
50
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Mandinka
Native to
Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau
Most spoken in
Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau
Native speakers
2,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mansi
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Manx
Native to
Isle of Man
Most spoken in
Isle of Man
Native speakers
1,800
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Maore
Native to
Mayotte
Most spoken in
Mayotte
Native speakers
70,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mapudungun
Native to
Chile, Argentina
Most spoken in
Chile, Argentina
Native speakers
440,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
14
Maranao
Native to
Philippines
Most spoken in
Philippines
Native speakers
1,700,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Marathi
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
83,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Mari
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
550,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
8
Matacoan
Native to
Paraguay
Most spoken in
Paraguay
Native speakers
10,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mauritian
Native to
Mauritius
Most spoken in
Mauritius
Native speakers
1,100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Maxakalí
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
1,200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Mehri
Native to
Oman, Yemen
Most spoken in
Oman, Yemen
Native speakers
75,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Mende
Native to
Sierra Leone
Most spoken in
Sierra Leone
Native speakers
1,500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Micmac
Native to
Canada
Most spoken in
Canada
Native speakers
3,700
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Mishmi
Native to
India, China
Most spoken in
India, China
Native speakers
70,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Miskito
Native to
Nicaragua, Honduras
Most spoken in
Nicaragua, Honduras
Native speakers
160,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mocoví
Native to
Argentina
Most spoken in
Argentina
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
12
Mohawk
Native to
Canada, United States
Most spoken in
Canada, United States
Native speakers
3,800
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Mokilese
Native to
Micronesia
Most spoken in
Micronesia
Native speakers
3,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Mongolian
Native to
Mongolia
Most spoken in
Mongolia, China
Native speakers
7,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Mundurukú
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
8,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
14
Māori
Native to
New Zealand
Most spoken in
New Zealand
Native speakers
100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Nafusi
Native to
Libya
Most spoken in
Libya
Native speakers
140,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
10
Nahuatl
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
1,376,360
UNESCO Status
Safe
14
Navajo
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
169,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Nepali
Native to
Nepal
Most spoken in
Nepal, India, Bhutan
Native speakers
23,500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Nganasan
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Ninam
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
520
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Nivkh
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
50
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Nogai
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
78,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Nomatsig’ga
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Nootka
Native to
Canada
Most spoken in
Canada
Native speakers
200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Norwegian
Native to
Norway
Most spoken in
Norway
Native speakers
5,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Nyankore
Native to
Uganda
Most spoken in
Uganda
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Ocaina
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Occitan
Native to
France
Most spoken in
France
Native speakers
2,100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
8
Odia
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
37,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Oneida
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Ossetic
Native to
Russia, Georgia
Most spoken in
Russia, Georgia
Native speakers
480,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Otomi
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
245,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Palauan
Native to
Palau
Most spoken in
Palau
Native speakers
17,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Pampangan
Native to
Philippines
Most spoken in
Philippines
Native speakers
2,000,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
6
Panare
Native to
Venezuela
Most spoken in
Venezuela
Native speakers
2,400
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Papiamento
Native to
Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire
Most spoken in
Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire
Native speakers
330,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Pashto
Native to
Afghanistan, Pakistan
Most spoken in
Afghanistan, Pakistan
Native speakers
62,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Paumarí
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
250
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Pazeh
Native to
Taiwan
Most spoken in
Taiwan
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
11
Persian
Native to
Iran, Afghanistan
Most spoken in
Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan
Native speakers
110,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Pilagá
Native to
Argentina
Most spoken in
Argentina
Native speakers
3,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
2
Pirahã
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
420
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Pitta Pitta
Native to
Australia
Most spoken in
Australia
Native speakers
10
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Polish
Native to
Poland
Most spoken in
Poland, United States, Canada
Native speakers
45,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Ponapean
Native to
Micronesia
Most spoken in
Micronesia
Native speakers
30,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Portuguese
Native to
Portugal, Brazil
Most spoken in
Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique
Native speakers
270,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Potawatomi
Native to
United States, Canada
Most spoken in
United States, Canada
Native speakers
400
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Puinave
Native to
Colombia, Venezuela
Most spoken in
Colombia, Venezuela
Native speakers
2,500
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Pulaar
Native to
Senegal, Mauritania, Guinea
Most spoken in
Senegal, Mauritania, Guinea, Gambia
Native speakers
2,100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Punjabi
Native to
India, Pakistan
Most spoken in
India, Pakistan
Native speakers
126,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Páez
Native to
Colombia
Most spoken in
Colombia
Native speakers
30,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Qawesqar
Native to
Chile
Most spoken in
Chile
Native speakers
25
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
7
Quechua
Native to
Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador
Most spoken in
Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia
Native speakers
8,376,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Rapa Nui
Native to
Chile
Most spoken in
Chile
Native speakers
2,800
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Romani
Native to
Various countries
Most spoken in
Europe, Asia
Native speakers
3,500,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Romanian
Native to
Romania
Most spoken in
Romania, Moldova, Ukraine
Native speakers
24,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Romansh
Native to
Switzerland
Most spoken in
Switzerland, Italy
Native speakers
60,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Rotokas
Native to
Papua New Guinea
Most spoken in
Papua New Guinea
Native speakers
4,350
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Roviana
Native to
Solomon Islands
Most spoken in
Solomon Islands
Native speakers
5,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
13
Russian
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan
Native speakers
155,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Saanich
Native to
Canada
Most spoken in
Canada
Native speakers
1,135
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Salar
Native to
China
Most spoken in
China
Native speakers
60,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Sango
Native to
Central African Republic
Most spoken in
Central African Republic
Native speakers
6,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Sardinian
Native to
Italy
Most spoken in
Italy
Native speakers
1,300,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
12
Scottish Gaelic
Native to
United Kingdom
Most spoken in
United Kingdom
Native speakers
57,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Secoya
Native to
Ecuador
Most spoken in
Ecuador
Native speakers
650
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Selkup
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,570
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
5
Sepedi
Native to
South Africa
Most spoken in
South Africa
Native speakers
4,200,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Serbian
Native to
Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Most spoken in
Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
Native speakers
9,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Shipibo
Native to
Peru
Most spoken in
Peru
Native speakers
30,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Shompen
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Shoshoni
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
9
Sicilian
Native to
Italy
Most spoken in
Italy
Native speakers
4,700,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Sinhala
Native to
Sri Lanka
Most spoken in
Sri Lanka
Native speakers
19,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Slovak
Native to
Slovakia
Most spoken in
Slovakia, Czech Republic
Native speakers
5,400,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Slovenian
Native to
Slovenia
Most spoken in
Slovenia, Austria, Italy, Hungary, Croatia
Native speakers
2,500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Somali
Native to
Somalia
Most spoken in
Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya
Native speakers
16,600,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Sorbian
Native to
Germany
Most spoken in
Germany
Native speakers
20,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Spanish
Native to
Spain, Latin America
Most spoken in
Spain, Latin America, Equatorial Guinea
Native speakers
490,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Sranan
Native to
Suriname
Most spoken in
Suriname
Native speakers
78,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Sudovian
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
0
UNESCO Status
Extinct
6
Suena
Native to
Papua New Guinea
Most spoken in
Papua New Guinea
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Sulung
Native to
Nepal
Most spoken in
Nepal
Native speakers
1,600
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Swedish
Native to
Sweden
Most spoken in
Sweden, Finland
Native speakers
10,200,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Tajik
Native to
Tajikistan
Most spoken in
Tajikistan, Afghanistan
Native speakers
7,800,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Talysh
Native to
Azerbaijan
Most spoken in
Azerbaijan, Iran
Native speakers
900,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Tamil
Native to
India, Sri Lanka
Most spoken in
India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia
Native speakers
84,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Tarahumara
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
61,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
9
Tat
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
1,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Tatar
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia, Ukraine
Native speakers
5,500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Tausug
Native to
Philippines
Most spoken in
Philippines
Native speakers
1,600,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Tehuelche
Native to
Argentina
Most spoken in
Argentina
Native speakers
200
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Telugu
Native to
India
Most spoken in
India
Native speakers
93,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Tetum
Native to
East Timor
Most spoken in
East Timor
Native speakers
500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Thai
Native to
Thailand
Most spoken in
Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia
Native speakers
60,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Tibetan
Native to
China, India
Most spoken in
China, India, Nepal, Bhutan
Native speakers
3,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
9
Tigrinya
Native to
Eritrea, Ethiopia
Most spoken in
Eritrea, Ethiopia
Native speakers
7,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Tlingit
Native to
United States, Canada
Most spoken in
United States, Canada
Native speakers
350
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
10
Tofa
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
20
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Tohono Oʼodham
Native to
United States, Mexico
Most spoken in
United States, Mexico
Native speakers
13,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
11
Tok Pisin
Native to
Papua New Guinea
Most spoken in
Papua New Guinea
Native speakers
120,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
9
Tokelauan
Native to
Tokelau
Most spoken in
Tokelau
Native speakers
1,300
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Tongan
Native to
Tonga
Most spoken in
Tonga, United States, Australia, New Zealand
Native speakers
160,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Trinitario
Native to
Venezuela
Most spoken in
Venezuela
Native speakers
2,300
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Trumai
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
10
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
3
Tsimane’
Native to
Bolivia
Most spoken in
Bolivia, Brazil
Native speakers
9,400
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Tsimshian
Native to
Canada, United States
Most spoken in
Canada, United States
Native speakers
2,500
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Tuki
Native to
Papua New Guinea
Most spoken in
Papua New Guinea
Native speakers
4,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Turkish
Native to
Turkey
Most spoken in
Turkey, Cyprus, Germany, Bulgaria
Native speakers
83,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Turkmen
Native to
Turkmenistan
Most spoken in
Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan
Native speakers
6,200,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
8
Tuvaluan
Native to
Tuvalu
Most spoken in
Tuvalu
Native speakers
11,000
UNESCO Status
Vulnerable
6
Tuyuca
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
1,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
12
Udmurt
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
550,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Ukrainian
Native to
Ukraine
Most spoken in
Ukraine, Poland, Russia, Belarus
Native speakers
37,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Urdu
Native to
Pakistan, India
Most spoken in
Pakistan, India, United Kingdom
Native speakers
70,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Uyghur
Native to
China
Most spoken in
China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkey
Native speakers
13,000,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Uzbek
Native to
Uzbekistan
Most spoken in
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan
Native speakers
32,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Venda
Native to
South Africa
Most spoken in
South Africa, Zimbabwe
Native speakers
1,200,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
10
Veps
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia, Estonia, Finland
Native speakers
1,300
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
10
Vietnamese
Native to
Vietnam
Most spoken in
Vietnam, United States, Australia, France
Native speakers
90,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Võro
Native to
Estonia
Most spoken in
Estonia
Native speakers
70,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
8
Võrumaa
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
10
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Wai Wai
Native to
Guyana
Most spoken in
Guyana
Native speakers
3,000
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Waorani
Native to
Ecuador
Most spoken in
Ecuador, Peru
Native speakers
2,000
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Wapishana
Native to
Guyana
Most spoken in
Guyana
Native speakers
11,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
5
Wayampi
Native to
Brazil, French Guiana
Most spoken in
Brazil, French Guiana
Native speakers
700
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Welsh
Native to
Wales
Most spoken in
Wales, United Kingdom
Native speakers
562,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Witoto
Native to
Colombia
Most spoken in
Colombia
Native speakers
400
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
9
Wolof
Native to
Senegal
Most spoken in
Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, France
Native speakers
11,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
11
Xhosa
Native to
South Africa
Most spoken in
South Africa, Lesotho
Native speakers
8,100,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Yakut
Native to
Russia
Most spoken in
Russia
Native speakers
450,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Yapese
Native to
Micronesia
Most spoken in
Micronesia, United States
Native speakers
3,300
UNESCO Status
Severely Endangered
6
Yaruro
Native to
Venezuela
Most spoken in
Venezuela
Native speakers
10
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Yiddish
Native to
Israel
Most spoken in
Israel, United States, Canada, Europe, Poland
Native speakers
1,500,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
11
Yoruba
Native to
Nigeria, Benin
Most spoken in
Nigeria, Benin, Togo
Native speakers
28,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
7
Yucatec Maya
Native to
Mexico, Belize, Guatemala
Most spoken in
Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, United States
Native speakers
750,000
UNESCO Status
Definitely Endangered
6
Yuwana
Native to
Brazil
Most spoken in
Brazil
Native speakers
220
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
6
Zapotec Yatz.
Native to
Mexico
Most spoken in
Mexico
Native speakers
1,220
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
11
Zhuang
Native to
China
Most spoken in
China
Native speakers
16,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
10
Zulu
Native to
South Africa
Most spoken in
South Africa, Zimbabwe, Eswatini
Native speakers
12,000,000
UNESCO Status
Safe
6
Zuñi
Native to
United States
Most spoken in
United States
Native speakers
9,500
UNESCO Status
Critically Endangered
A color term is a word or phrase that refers to a specific color. The color term may refer to human perception of that color which is usually defined according to the Munsell color system, or to an underlying physical property, But color terms did not come out of nowhere. Color terms are a concept, in fact they are a grouping of color shades into a word.
Basic color terms have to meet the following criteria:
- It is agreed upon by speakers of that language.
- It is monolexemic ('green', but not 'light green' or 'forest green').
- It is frequently mentioned by speakers of that language.
Each language develops its own habits of perception from within its culture. Almost no languages are the same in terms of the perception of color and language, and even if there is in appearance - in practice it is far from the truth.
According to history and the study of linguistics, all languages originate from the same place. There is a process that a language goes through in order to reach a language saturated with terms. All languages have terms for black and white, but these were not attributed to the colors we know today as black and white, but were attributed to two groups - light and dark or hot and cold.
Basically, we can sum up the entire color scale we are familiar with from a linguistic point of view in black and white. It is an entirely logical division and it is how the human eye perceives colors regardless of whether we like it or not.
As a language develops and invents more and more focused terms for each subject, it begins to distinguish one type of object from another and the same with colors.
According to a study by Paul Kay and Brent Berlin, there is a clear process that every language goes through and of course there is an exception, but one thing that can be agreed upon is that all languages have black and white terms.
The context for this project is the classic theoretical analysis of cross-cultural differences in color categories by Berlin and Kay (1969). On the basis of their study of 98 world languages, these authors advanced two conjectures about the differences they observed. Their first conjecture was that there is a limited set of basic color terms (BCTs) in most languages, which are distinct from other color terms that an individual might use to name colors.
According to their research, The authors theorize that as languages evolve, they acquire new basic color terms in a strict chronological sequence; if a basic color term is found in a language, then the colors of all earlier stages should also be present.
Color terminology evolution
The basic conclusion of the Berlin and Kay study is that the lack of randomness of color terms over the studied languages suggested a series of evolutionary stages in the development of color words.
Berlin and Kay suggest that there were seven stages in the development of color terms and that these stages followed an exact chronological order. They based this conclusion on the restrictions they uncovered showing languages fell into seven groupings. These stages are evolutionary in the authors’ view with Stage I languages having only colors for “black” and “white.” As languages progress up the ladder of evolution, they gain more color words eventually reaching Stage VII, which has eight or more basic color words.
- Stage I – In the first stage of evolution, the language has two terms for dark and white plus words for dark and white hues.
- Stage II – The second stage involves the adoption of red to include all colors within the range of red and orange along with most yellows, browns, pinks and purples.rms, the third is red.
- Stage III – The terms for black and white shrink in the scope of colors they represent. In addition to the color red, there is now either a color term for green or yellow. Green terms usually include the English terms for yellow-green, green, blue, blue-green and blue-purple. Yellow will include yellows, tans, and light browns.
- Stage IV – In the fourth stage, there is a clear division between yellow and green. Green will include most blue colors while red will cover reds along with purple, and some yellow-reds and purple-reds.
- Stage V – In Stage V, black and white cover a smaller range of hues, and the color blue becomes distinguishable from green.
- Stage VI – In this stage, a term for the color brown emerges. The authors suggest that the colors purple and pin generally come from the red color although in some cases evidence points to origin from the color black.
- Stage VII – At the seventh stage, the language develops terms for eight basic colors. Most languages in this category have terms for all eleven basic colors.
How they carried out their study
Berlin and Kay used a standardized procedure developed by Munsell Color Company for their color term research. The Munsell test consisted of 329-color chip set mounted on a board. The researchers used the color chip set to question informants about color terms in their language.
Native speakers came from a diverse set of languages to decrease the possibility of borrowed color terminology. The languages used were:
- Lebanese Arabic
- Bulgarian (Bulgaria)
- Catalan (Spain)
- Cantonese (China)
- American English
- Hebrew (Israel)
- Hungarian (Hungary)
- Ibibio (Nigeria)
- Indonesian (Indonesia)
- Japanese (Japan)
- Korean (Korea)
- Mandarin (China)
- Pomo (California)
- Spanish (Mexico)
- Swahili (East Africa)
- Tagalog (Philippines)
- Thai (Thailand)
- Tzeltal (Mexico)
- Urdu (India)
- Vietnamese (Vietnam)
All the informants were bilingual or multilingual speakers living in the San Francisco Bay Area at the time of the study. Additionally, other languages without native speakers included in the study brought the total sample to 98 languages.
Influence
While Berlin and Kay’s book had and continues to have significant influence, it has also encountered criticism from many corners and even from the authors themselves in their later work.
Most researchers question the order of the stages and many have found faults in the study’s methodology. In many languages, for example, speakers can signify differences in color, not by separate terms, but by variations in syntax, morphology, tone and inflection.
According to my study "Color Terms of the Globe," there are some exceptions, and Berlin & Kay's system is not as consistent as they claimed. Although the majority of languages follow their evolution "rules" as far as I've seen, there are some exceptions.
All people see colors, of course; some with disabilities see less accurate shades, but in general, all cultures and people see the same colors. What differs between languages is the perception and significance of each color.
As part of my research, I found 000 different languages to test Berlin and Kay's theory. Each language had its own color terms, resulting in 0000 color terms overall. The results of the study showed that the number of color terms varies significantly among languages.
Color terms distribution
Some cultures didn't need to "name" some shades with specific terms because they didn't consider them more important than others. But in almost all cases, the sequence of color terms was the same: at first, names were given to the basic terms, and then the more complex color terms developed, which are actually color shades of the basic terms: red: pink, yellow: orange, etc.
Interesting cases include two color terms: light blue and grue. Light blue is considered an important basic term in several languages, and in others it is nothing more than an insignificant shade that does not need to be named. Grue, on the other hand, is an interesting term. Grue is a color term that refers to two different colors and not the shades of the same color; it is a union of green and blue, and surprisingly, it is common in both small and large languages.
In addition, there are centuries-old languages that did not feel the need to invent color terms at all or beyond black and white. This shows that color terms are not universal, and they are not necessary for communication.
Grue
Grue is a combination of Blue and Green, and it is being used by languages that don't distinguish between both colors.One could consider it a "developmental delay". However, languages with "Grue" are functional, and their speakers understand the difference in usage depending on the context. For example, if I say "Grue sky" (as if in our language we have the color grue), it is immediately translated to a bluish color in our mind, but if I say "grue leaf", it will have the meaning of green.
In Chinese, the character 青 (qīng) has a meaning that covers both blue and green.
But modern Chinese language has the blue–green distinction (藍 for blue and 綠 for green)
In Vietnamese, the character 青 (xanh) has a meaning that covers both blue and green.
In modern usage, blue and green are dislexified. Shades of blue are specifically described as xanh da trời (blue skin of sky). Green is described as xanh lá cây (green of leaves).
In Cornish, Breton, and Welsh, glas is usually translated as blue; however, it can also refer, variously, to shades of blue and green as well.
Glas could refer to certain shades of green and gray as well as blue, Modern Welsh is trending toward the 11-color Western scheme, restricting glas to blue and using gwyrdd for green.
In Lakota, the word tȟó has a meaning that covers both blue and green.
light-blue
Throughout history, the color blue has gained popularity in different cultures. If it is in traditional costumes, flags, and ceremonies, the blue color has become central and optimistic. Today, there is no broad distinction between the shades of the color blue, but a term that is beginning to gain momentum is light blue. Different cultures began to separate the shades of blue into blue and light blue, and there are also smaller cultures that also distinguish dark blue in addition, but this is extremely rare and controversial.
In Russian, there are two different terms for the color blue - голубой and синий.
Among Russian speakers, there is no broad agreement regarding the meaning of blue color terms, and some claim that синий is attributed to dark blue, and there is no defined term for blue.
In Hebrew, there are two different terms for the color blue - תכלת and כחול.
In Judaism, תכלת is a very important and symbolic color. In Hebrew the word תכלת is also used to describe the sky.
In Greek, there are two different terms for the color blue - γαλάζιο and μπλε.
In Italian, there are two different terms for the color blue - azzurro and blu.
Cultures that have added the term light blue to their language lexicon treat it as a completely separate color, just like orange and yellow. In addition, studies have shown that speakers of languages that distinguish between shades of blue using different color terms can identify more shades of blue in their environment and distinguish between them more easily.
Red
Red is the third term created in language development, right after black and white. Red is the first basic color that a person sees when he is born (blood); therefore, it takes on a high meaning and symbolizes life and naturalness. The color red was very common in the world until the 18th century in culture, art, and clothing, and therefore occupied a very wide place in all cultures. In the 18th century, the color blue was "invented" through means related to textiles and painting and took the place of red in many cultures.
In Hungarian, there are two different terms for the color red - piros and vörös.
In Scottish and Irish, there are two different terms for the color red - dearg and rua.
Different languages attach different meanings to red, and those that have different terms for its shades often use them to separate artificial red from natural red.
Black and white
According to Berlin and Kay, there are a number of cultures that remain in the first stage of color terms development. Stage I contains two terms, white and black (light and dark); these terms are used broadly to describe other undefined color terms. At the beginning of color terms development, there is a reference to two categories: light and dark. This is actually how we perceive the world; these are the most basic categories of our color perception. As soon as we feel the need to call a shade of color by a specific name, the term color is created. For some languages, this step is not essential, and they can use adjectives for both categories and express themselves accordingly.
In Bassa, there are only two terms for classifying colors - hwúe and zĩ-zã.
zĩ-zã use to describe - white, yellow, orange and red, and hwúe for - black, violet, blue, and green.
In Pirahã, there appear to be no color terms beyond describing lightness and darkness.
The Pirahã language does not have specific color terms and they only use an abstract or visual description to describe colors.
In Baliem Valley, there are only two terms for classifying color - mili and mola.
mili use to describe cool/dark shades such as blue, green, and black; and mola for warm/light colors such as red, yellow, and white.
Cultures without specific color terms see the same colors that cultures with lots of color terms see. Everything is a matter of importance in the eyes of the speakers of the language, if there is no need and use of extensive color terms there is no reason to invent such.
Extra colors
Various cultures around the world use more than 11 and even 12 basic color terms.This issue is more complex since there is a fine line between a color term and a word describing a color. Languages such as Navajo have a precise formula for saying colors. Each color is actually a specific term with the help of a prefix and a suffix, so where does the line draw? Shades of brown or shades of yellow are color terms? If all speakers of the language agree on it and understand the speaker's intention, then yes.
While some will say the basic color terms are all that matter and all the rest are popular words such as lilac and violet, few are aware that "pink" in English also comes from the name of a flower and slowly became common and became a specific color.We don't know where the language of color will develop and how many more words and shades will reach us, or if we have exhausted the entire verbal spectrum and finished?
Language is something that develops in a linear way. All languages developed in almost exactly the same way, no matter where in the world they came from geographically and culturally.
A language can survive with a few color terms and with a lot as well. That is why languages like Pirahã that consist of only two color terms can exist and be usable by speakers of the language just like English or any language with extra color terms.
As long as the lexicon is used correctly, and shades are associated correctly, the amount of variance does not matter, as in the case of the color "Grue" - a union of two colors is not a union, one could consider it a "developmental delay", however languages with "Grue" are functional and their speakers understand the difference in usage depending on the context.
Evolution of language is undoubtedly an interesting matter. The development of the human eye to distinguish between shades and call them by specific names only shows the development of the human intellectual over time.
I wonder if in a few hundred years there will be more color terms?
Not far-fetched.
The Color Terms of the Globe project maps and documents color terms in more than 300 languages around the world. It provides an interactive insight into how different cultures perceive and interpret color and highlights the different uses of color terms. The project was created to explore how color terms are used and understood across different cultures, and to offer a platform for people to learn about the ways in which different cultures perceive color. The interactive visualizations provide a unique insight into how color terms are used in different languages, and how they influence the way we think about color.
Color terms of the globe, was made by Aviad Sherry as a final project in the Department of Visual Communication at the Bezalel Academy of Art and Design in Jerusalem.
- INDEX OF 000 SPOKEN LANGUAGES
- 0000 COLOR TERMS
- A COLOR TERM IS A WORD OR PHRASE THAT REFERS TO A SPECIFIC COLOR